Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in people with long COVID, ME/CFS, and controls

Nilihan E.M. Sanal-Hayes; Lawrence D. Hayes; Marie McLaughlin; Ethan C.J. Berry; Nicholas F. Sculthorpe

doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in people with long COVID, ME/CFS, and controls

Nilihan E.M. Sanal-Hayes
, Lawrence D. Hayes^*
, Marie McLaughlin
, Ethan C.J. Berry
, Nicholas F. Sculthorpe

^*Corresponding author for this work

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

65 Downloads (Pure)

Abstract

Background
Prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) have not previously been compared between individuals with long coronavirus disease (COVID) and individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and healthy age-matched controls. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD in individuals with long COVID (n = 21) and ME/CFS (n = 20) and age-matched controls (n = 20).

Methods
A case-case-control approach was employed; participants completed the International Trauma Questionnaire, a self-report measure of the International Classification of Diseases of PTSD and CPTSD consisting of 18 items. Scores were calculated for each PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organization (DSO) symptom cluster and summed to produce PTSD and DSO scores. PTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD were met but not DSO, and CPTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD and DSO were met. Moreover, each cluster of PTSD and DSO were compared among individuals with long COVID, ME/CFS, and healthy controls.

Results
Individuals with long COVID (PTSD = 5%, CPTSD = 33%) had more prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 20%) and healthy controls (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 0%). PTSD and CPTSD prevalence was greater in individuals with long COVID and ME/CFS than controls. Individuals with long COVID had greater values controls for all PTSD values. Moreover, individuals with long COVID had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Individuals with ME/CFS had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Both long COVID and ME/CFS groups differed in overall symptom scores compared with controls.

Conclusion
Findings of this study demonstrated that individuals with long COVID generally had more
cases of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.

Original language	English
Pages (from-to)	742-749
Number of pages	8
Journal	The American Journal of Medicine
Volume	138
Issue number	4
Early online date	15 Dec 2023
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006
Publication status	Published - 30 Apr 2025

Keywords

chronic fatigue syndrome
complex post-traumatic stress disorder
long COVID
myalgic encephalomyelitis
post-traumatic stress disorder
trauma

Access to Document

10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006Licence: CC BY 4.0

2023 12 05 Sanal-Hayes et al PTSD finalFinal published version, 1.02 MBLicence: CC BY 4.0

Cite this

@article{8f4f409937f643fea4beb547d31cbfea,

title = "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in people with long COVID, ME/CFS, and controls",

abstract = "Background Prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) have not previously been compared between individuals with long coronavirus disease (COVID) and individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and healthy age-matched controls. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD in individuals with long COVID (n = 21) and ME/CFS (n = 20) and age-matched controls (n = 20). Methods A case-case-control approach was employed; participants completed the International Trauma Questionnaire, a self-report measure of the International Classification of Diseases of PTSD and CPTSD consisting of 18 items. Scores were calculated for each PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organization (DSO) symptom cluster and summed to produce PTSD and DSO scores. PTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD were met but not DSO, and CPTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD and DSO were met. Moreover, each cluster of PTSD and DSO were compared among individuals with long COVID, ME/CFS, and healthy controls. Results Individuals with long COVID (PTSD = 5\%, CPTSD = 33\%) had more prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS (PTSD = 0\%, CPTSD = 20\%) and healthy controls (PTSD = 0\%, CPTSD = 0\%). PTSD and CPTSD prevalence was greater in individuals with long COVID and ME/CFS than controls. Individuals with long COVID had greater values controls for all PTSD values. Moreover, individuals with long COVID had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Individuals with ME/CFS had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Both long COVID and ME/CFS groups differed in overall symptom scores compared with controls. Conclusion Findings of this study demonstrated that individuals with long COVID generally had more cases of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.",

keywords = "chronic fatigue syndrome, complex post-traumatic stress disorder, long COVID, myalgic encephalomyelitis, post-traumatic stress disorder, trauma",

author = "Sanal-Hayes, \{Nilihan E.M.\} and Hayes, \{Lawrence D.\} and Marie McLaughlin and Berry, \{Ethan C.J.\} and Sculthorpe, \{Nicholas F.\}",

year = "2025",

month = apr,

day = "30",

doi = "10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006",

language = "English",

volume = "138",

pages = "742--749",

journal = "The American Journal of Medicine",

issn = "1555-7162",

publisher = "Elsevier Inc.",

number = "4",

}

TY - JOUR

T1 - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in people with long COVID, ME/CFS, and controls

AU - Sanal-Hayes, Nilihan E.M.

AU - Hayes, Lawrence D.

AU - McLaughlin, Marie

AU - Berry, Ethan C.J.

AU - Sculthorpe, Nicholas F.

PY - 2025/4/30

Y1 - 2025/4/30

N2 - Background Prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) have not previously been compared between individuals with long coronavirus disease (COVID) and individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and healthy age-matched controls. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD in individuals with long COVID (n = 21) and ME/CFS (n = 20) and age-matched controls (n = 20). Methods A case-case-control approach was employed; participants completed the International Trauma Questionnaire, a self-report measure of the International Classification of Diseases of PTSD and CPTSD consisting of 18 items. Scores were calculated for each PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organization (DSO) symptom cluster and summed to produce PTSD and DSO scores. PTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD were met but not DSO, and CPTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD and DSO were met. Moreover, each cluster of PTSD and DSO were compared among individuals with long COVID, ME/CFS, and healthy controls. Results Individuals with long COVID (PTSD = 5%, CPTSD = 33%) had more prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 20%) and healthy controls (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 0%). PTSD and CPTSD prevalence was greater in individuals with long COVID and ME/CFS than controls. Individuals with long COVID had greater values controls for all PTSD values. Moreover, individuals with long COVID had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Individuals with ME/CFS had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Both long COVID and ME/CFS groups differed in overall symptom scores compared with controls. Conclusion Findings of this study demonstrated that individuals with long COVID generally had more cases of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.

AB - Background Prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) have not previously been compared between individuals with long coronavirus disease (COVID) and individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and healthy age-matched controls. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD in individuals with long COVID (n = 21) and ME/CFS (n = 20) and age-matched controls (n = 20). Methods A case-case-control approach was employed; participants completed the International Trauma Questionnaire, a self-report measure of the International Classification of Diseases of PTSD and CPTSD consisting of 18 items. Scores were calculated for each PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organization (DSO) symptom cluster and summed to produce PTSD and DSO scores. PTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD were met but not DSO, and CPTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD and DSO were met. Moreover, each cluster of PTSD and DSO were compared among individuals with long COVID, ME/CFS, and healthy controls. Results Individuals with long COVID (PTSD = 5%, CPTSD = 33%) had more prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 20%) and healthy controls (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 0%). PTSD and CPTSD prevalence was greater in individuals with long COVID and ME/CFS than controls. Individuals with long COVID had greater values controls for all PTSD values. Moreover, individuals with long COVID had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Individuals with ME/CFS had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Both long COVID and ME/CFS groups differed in overall symptom scores compared with controls. Conclusion Findings of this study demonstrated that individuals with long COVID generally had more cases of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.

KW - chronic fatigue syndrome

KW - complex post-traumatic stress disorder

KW - long COVID

KW - myalgic encephalomyelitis

KW - post-traumatic stress disorder

KW - trauma

U2 - 10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

DO - 10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

M3 - Article

SN - 1555-7162

VL - 138

SP - 742

EP - 749

JO - The American Journal of Medicine

JF - The American Journal of Medicine

IS - 4

ER -

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in people with long COVID, ME/CFS, and controls

Abstract

Keywords

Access to Document

Fingerprint

Cite this