A theoretical framework of communal resistance to mega-events

Activists resist events in diverse ways to address many social problems. We synthesise 20 years of academic literature and data on how and why activists have opposed the bidding, staging, and legacy fallout of the Summer and Winter Olympic Games, providing a comprehensive overview of Olympic resistance. Evidence is presented from a transnational resistance movement perspective and through case-by-case analysis of international events, including historical cases (Beijing 2008; Vancouver 2010; London 2012; Sochi 2014; Rio 2016; PyeongChang 2018; Tokyo 2020; Beijing 2022) and current cases (Paris 2024; LA 2028). Findings reveal a typology of resistance approaches. We explain their importance for each case, detailing key stakeholders, their roles in resistance, where it occurs, and when it emerges. Based on this analysis, we present a theoretical framework of communal resistance to large-scale events, generalisable to contested major sporting and cultural contexts. We conclude with managerial recommendations and a future research agenda, focused on exploring resistance beyond Olympic contexts; effectiveness of resistance tactics; and how transnational networks form, operate, influence policy and planning in an increasingly digitised world.